Black Soldier Fly Larvae Meal (<i>Hermetia illucens</i>) in Tropical Broiler Diets: Inclusion Thresholds for Growth Performance, Physiological, and Survival Dynamics

Louhd Gbetnkom Mbansie; Paul Serge Mbenoun Massé; Bertrant James Taya Saah; Samuel Didier Makon; Ruth Mony

doi:doi:10.11648/j.aas.20261104.11

Research Article |

| Peer-Reviewed

Black Soldier Fly Larvae Meal (Hermetia illucens) in Tropical Broiler Diets: Inclusion Thresholds for Growth Performance, Physiological, and Survival Dynamics

Louhd Gbetnkom Mbansie, Paul Serge Mbenoun Massé^*

, Bertrant James Taya Saah, Samuel Didier Makon

, Ruth Mony

Published in Advances in Applied Sciences (Volume 11, Issue 4)

Received: 13 August 2026 Accepted: 9 October 2026 Published: 21 October 2026

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Abstract

Poultry farming plays a pivotal role in ensuring food security and rural livelihoods across Sub-Saharan Africa. However, extreme reliance on expensive imported protein feeds, particularly soybean meal and fish meal, severely undermines sector sustainability. This study evaluated the effects of the replacement of the soybean meal with local BSFL meal (BSFLM) on growth performance, survival, liver/kidney biomarkers, and hematological responses in broiler chickens (Ross 308) in Cameroon. A total of 72 one-day-old unsexed chicks were randomly allocated to four dietary treatments across three replicates (6 chicks/replicate) for 56 days (starter phase: days 1–28; grower phase: days 29–56): Control A1 (0% BSFLM), A2 (5%/2.5%, starter/grower), A3 (7.5%/3.75%), A4 (complete replacement: 15%/7.5%). On day 56, 24 chicks were sampled for full blood count, liver enzyme, kidney function, and lipid profile analyses using standardized enzymatic spectrophotometry. Broilers fed diet A3 achieved the highest final body weight (1021.44 ± 245.88 g) and 0% mortality. Conversely, total substitution (A4) resulted in significantly reduced growth, high mortality (22.22%), and impaired feed efficiency, indicating metabolic limits or nutrient imbalances at high inclusion rates. Hepatic (ALT, AST) and renal (creatinine, uric acid) parameters, along with serum lipid profiles (total cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL, LDL), remained within normal physiological reference ranges across all groups, confirming the physiological safety of BSFLM. A significant reactive thrombocytosis was detected in groups A2 and A4 (p < 0.05), warranting further investigation into immune-mediated pathways. Locally processed BSFL meal can safely replace up to 50% of dietary soybean meal in tropical broiler formulations without compromising growth, physiological health, and chicken survival, highlighting the imperative for strict processing standards and threshold management in poultry nutrition.

Published in	Advances in Applied Sciences (Volume 11, Issue 4)
DOI	10.11648/j.aas.20261104.11
Page(s)	145-155
Creative Commons	This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
Copyright	Copyright © The Author(s), 2026. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

Hermetia Illucens, Black Soldier Fly Larvae Meal, Broiler Performance, Hematology, Alternative Protein, Tropical Poultry Nutrition, Afrotropical Region

1. Introduction

Poultry production represents a strategic pillar for economic growth, rural empowerment, and food security across Sub-saharan Africa regions

[1, 2]

. In these regions, rapidly growing urban populations and rising demands for animal protein have intensified pressure on poultry production systems

[3-6]

. However, the sustainable expansion of modern poultry farming faces major economic hurdles due to the escalating cost of standard dietary feed ingredients, which consistently account for 65% to 75% of total operational expenditure

[4, 7, 8]

Broiler chickens (e.g Gallus gallus domesticus) provide an affordable, highly nutritious source of high-quality animal protein with a rapid production cycle and relatively small land footprint

[3]

. High-quality dietary protein with balanced essential amino acid profiles is critical for maximizing broiler growth velocity and muscle deposition. Soybean meal (SBM) and fish meal have long served as primary dietary protein sources. Nevertheless, SBM availability in Sub-Saharan Africa is hampered by heavy reliance on volatile global import markets, land-use conflict, and direct competition with human nutrition

[6]

. Similarly, fish meal supplies are shrinking due to marine overexploitation, environmental degradation, and escalating costs

[9, 10]

. This over-dependence on imported inputs places small-to-medium poultry enterprises in a state of high economic vulnerability

[11, 12]

Identifying locally available, eco-friendly, and cost-effective protein alternatives is therefore an imperative research priority

[3]

. Insect farming has emerged as a revolutionary component of circular agriculture

[13, 14]

. From a nutritional perspective, insect meals commonly feature crude protein contents coupled with essential amino acid profiles that are frequently limiting in conventional plant-based feed ingredients like soybean meal

[8, 15]

. Biochemical analyses further reveal that their lipid fractions are rich in saturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, alongside vital micronutrients, chitin, and bioactive molecules

[9, 16]

. These specific biochemical traits confer functional health benefits that establish insects as a premier alternative resource in poultry production systems.

Many insects belonging to the orders of Diptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera have been long used as alternative protein source in animal nutrition

[17]

. Among dipteran species, black soldier fly (BSF; Hermetia illucens L., Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae stand out due to their exceptional nutritional density. BSF larvae meal (BSFLM) contains 40–48% crude protein (dry matter basis) and a rich lipid fraction (15–35%), alongside balanced essential amino acids comparable or superior to SBM and fish meal

[18, 19]

. Numerous studies have demonstrated the presence of essential macro- and trace minerals, such as calcium, phosphorus, sodium, and iron, in black soldier fly larvae meal (BSFLM)

[20]

. Furthermore, various essential and non-essential amino acids are present, notably lysine, alanine, methionine, and cystine

[20, 21]

. The nutrient profile of these chemical compounds positions BSFLM as an excellent candidate for alternative protein sources to fishmeal and soybean meal in animal nutrition and production

[22, 23]

Numerous studies demonstrated that BSFLM can partially replace conventional protein sources in poultry nutrition

[24-27]

. In aquaculture, incorporating BSFLM into the diets of fish species such as channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus Rafinesque, 1818), blue tilapia (Oreochromis aureus Steindachner, 1864), and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum, 1792) has shown that weight gain and growth rates are comparable to those fed on a commercial diet

[28, 29]

. Similar trends were observed when replacing 50% of the swine diet with late-instar BSFLM

[30]

. In Central Africa, rearing BSF on local agro-industrial by products such as spent brewer's grains, palm kernel meal, and cassava pulp represents a realistic pathway toward lowering feed costs and reducing environmental waste

[31, 32]

Previous studies conducted in temperate regions demonstrated that BSFL fat replaced soybean oil without inducing adverse effects on growth performance, carcass yield, or blood physiological markers

[26]

. However, standard industrial practice in temperate climate typically uses highly refined, commercially extracted insect oils fed in climate-controlled environments. In tropical Sub-Saharan Africa, poultry production systems rely on crude, locally extracted BSFL meal derived from larvae reared on household, agro-industrial and local market wastes, such as spent brewer's grain and palm kernel cake

[7, 33, 34]

Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the effects of the replacement of conventional dietary soybean meal with increasing levels of locally processed, unrefined BSFL meal in broiler diets under ambient tropical conditions. We investigated growth dynamics, survival rates, liver and kidney, serum biochemical indicators, and complete blood cell counts, with a specific goal of establishing safe, optimized inclusion rates for sustainable regional adoption.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Production and Processing of Black Soldier Fly Larvae Meal

Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) were reared over a period of 59 days from November 1^st, 2025 to January 25^th, 2026 at the Laboratory of zoology, Facility of the Faculty of Science, University of Yaoundé 1, Cameroon. During production process, 40 plastic rearing basins were used, each engineered to yield approximately 1.0 kg of fresh larvae per cycle. To meet experimental requirements (80 kg fresh larvae, yielding approximately 20 kg dry meal), production was executed in two consecutive batches.

BSFL were reared locally on a mixture of spent brewer's grain, peanut cake, and soybean residues following the mass-rearing procedures described by Mbansié et al. 2022

[7]

. Homogenized substrate was loaded into basins at 5.0 kg per basin and renewed according to larval developmental stages. At the fifth instar (L5 stage; characterized by creamy coloration and maximum body mass), larvae were harvested and separated from residual substrate ‘’frass’’ using a 5-mm mesh sieve.

Harvested larvae were weighed in 1-kg lots and thermal-blanched in heated water at 75 °C for 40 seconds to ensure swift humane mortality and inactivate endogenous degradation enzymes. Blanched larvae were drained on wire screens for 30 minutes under solar exposure to remove excess moisture and subsequently dried in an 8-tray electric drying oven at 53 °C for 24 hours until constant weight was achieved. Dried larvae were ground using an industrial mill into a fine, homogeneous meal (BSFLM), sealed in airtight moisture-proof polyethylene bags, and stored in a cool, dark room prior to feed formulation.

2.2. Dietary Treatments and Feed Formulation

Four experimental iso-proteic and iso-energetic diets were formulated for starter (1–28 days) and grower (29–56 days) phases according to Ross 308 nutrient specifications. Four dietary treatment groups were evaluated based on the replacement level of soybean meal with BSFLM: (i) Diet A1 (Control): 0% BSFLM (standard soybean meal-based diet); (ii) Diet A2 (Low inclusion): 5% BSFLM in starter / 2.5% BSFLM in grower phase; (iii) Diet A3 (Medium inclusion): 7.5% BSFLM in starter / 3.75% BSFLM in grower phase; (iv) Diet A4 (Total substitution): 15% BSFLM in starter / 7.5% BSFLM in grower phase (100% SBM replacement).

Diets were balanced using local feed formulation standards from the Institute of Agricultural Research for Development (IRAD, Cameroon). Proportions of corn, wheat bran, peanut meal, and mineral-vitamin premix were adjusted across diets to ensure uniform energy and crude protein concentrations (Tables 1 and 2). Diets were mixed in a double-helix horizontal mixer for 15 minutes per 50-kg batch to ensure uniform dispersion. Feed was distributed daily at 16: 00 h, and unconsumed feed was collected and weighed every morning at 08: 00 h to determine net daily feed intake.

Table 1. Centesimal composition and calculated nutritional values of experimental starter diets (Days 1–28).

Ingredients (%)	Diet A1 (Control)	Diet A2 (5%)	Diet A3 (7.5%)	Diet A4 (15%)
Corn	50.00	50.00	50.00	50.00
Soybean Meal (SBM)	15.00	10.00	7.50	0.00
Peanut Meal	10.00	10.00	10.00	10.00
Fish Meal	4.50	4.50	4.50	4.50
Wheat Bran	20.00	20.00	20.00	20.00
BSF Larvae Meal (BSFLM)	0.00	5.00	7.50	15.00
Common Salt + Premix	0.50	0.50	0.50	0.50
Total	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00

Table 2. Centesimal composition and calculated nutritional values of experimental grower diets (Days 29–56).

Ingredients (%)	Diet A1 (Control)	Diet A2 (2.5%)	Diet A3 (3.75%)	Diet A4 (7.5%)
Corn	50.00	50.00	50.00	50.00
Soybean Meal (SBM)	7.50	5.00	3.75	0.00
Peanut Meal	17.00	17.00	17.00	17.00
Fish Meal	4.50	4.50	4.50	4.50
Wheat Bran	20.00	20.00	20.00	20.00
BSF Larvae Meal (BSFLM)	0.00	2.50	3.75	7.50
Common Salt + Premix	0.50	0.50	0.50	0.50
Total	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00

2.3. Experimental Design and Animal Management

A total of 72 unsexed one-day-old Ross 308 broiler chicks were randomly assigned to four dietary treatment groups (18 chicks/treatment, divided into 3 replicate pens of 6 chicks each). The chicks were housed in deep-litter floor pens equipped with manual feeders and bell drinkers under ambient tropical environmental conditions. Environmental temperature and humidity were continuously monitored using automated digital data loggers. Fresh water and mash feed were provided ad libitum throughout the trial.

2.4. Growth Performance and Mortality Recording

Individual body weight (BW) and group feed intake (FI) were recorded weekly. Average daily gain (ADG), total weight gain (WG), feed conversion ratio (FCR), and cumulative mortality rates were calculated at the end of the starter (day 28) and grower (day 56) phases.

2.5. Blood Sampling, Hematology, and Biochemistry

On day 56, blood samples were collected from six randomly selected chicks per treatment via brachial venipuncture. Samples were divided into two tubes: (1) Anticoagulant (EDTA) tubes: Evaluated immediately for complete blood count (CBC) including Red Blood Cell count (RBC), Hemoglobin (HGB), Hematocrit (HCT), White Blood Cell count (WBC), and Platelet count (PLT), Thrombocrit (PCT), Lymphocytes (LYM), Monocytes (MON), and Granulocytes (GRA) using an automated hematology analyzer (Mindray BS-200); (2) Plain tubes (non-anticoagulant): Centrifuged at 3000g \times for 10 minutes to obtain a clear serum. Serum samples were analyzed for biochemical markers using kinetic and colorimetric spectrophotometric reagent kits (): Lipid profile: Triglycerides (TG), Total Cholesterol (TC), High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol (HDL-C), LowDensity Lipoprotein Cholesterol (LDL-C); Renal function: Serum Creatinine and Uric Acid; and Hepatic integrity & protein metabolism: Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT), Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST), Total Serum Protein.

All experimental procedures involving animal handling, care, and blood collection strictly adhered to international guidelines for humane research on farm animals and were approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee for Animal Care and Use at the University of Yaoundé 1, Cameroon.

2.6. Statistical Analysis

Data were subjected to One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) using SPSS version 26.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). Homogeneity of variance and normality of residuals were assessed using Levene’s and Shapiro-Wilk tests, respectively. Differences between treatment means were separated using Duncan's Multiple Range Significant Difference (HSD) post-hoc test. was employed for post-hoc comparison of treatment means. Cumulative mortality percentages were analyzed using Chi-square (χ²) test of independence. Statistical significance was defined at p < 0.05. Results are presented as Mean ± Standard Deviation (SD).

3. Results

3.1. Growth Performance

Live body weight dynamics across dietary treatments are detailed in Tables 3 and 4. Initial day-1 chick weights did not differ significantly (p > 0.05), ranging from 39.11 ± 2.78 g (A4) to 41.82 ± 3.15 g (A1). By day 6, chicks in group A3 (7.5% BSFLM) exhibited the highest numeric body weight (76.33 ± 9.94 g), whereas total replacement group A4 showed lower mass (66.44 ± 10.37 g). On day 26 (end of starter phase), broilers in group A3 reached 355.39 ± 50.52 g compared to 322.82 ± 50.50 g in control A1, while A4 was significantly depressed (278.31 ± 81.63 g; p < 0.05).

During the grower phase (Table 4), group A3 maintained superior growth momentum, achieving a final live weight of 1021.44 ± 245.88 g at day 56, followed by A2 (988.44 ± 192.43 g) and control A1 (974.88 ± 163.53 g). Total replacement diet A4 yielded the lowest final weight (968.73 ± 349.18 g) with substantial individual variation.

Table 3. Live body weight (g) of broiler chickens during the starter phase (Days 1–26).

Days / Diets	Diet A1 (Control)	Diet A2 (5.0%)	Diet A3 (7.5%)	Diet A4 (15.0%)
1	41.82 ± 3.15^a	40.88 ± 2.92^a	39.17 ± 2.20^a	39.11 ± 2.78^a
6	71.76 ± 12.27^a	68.88 ± 8.24^a	76.33 ± 9.94^a	66.44 ± 10.37^a
11	116.29 ± 19.53^a	110.13 ± 17.70^a	115.67 ± 13.09^a	96.78 ± 22.55^a
16	173.12 ± 27.02^a	148.19 ± 33.67^a	171.33 ± 21.05^a	136.50 ± 31.48^a
21	238.29 ± 39.08^a	241.50 ± 36.03^a	251.72 ± 28.83^a	198.75 ± 51.94^b
26	322.82 ± 50.50^a	334.88 ± 46.94^a	355.39 ± 50.52^a	278.31 ± 81.63^b

Means within the same row with different letters differ significantly (p < 0.05).

Table 4. Live body weight (g) of broiler chickens during the grower phase (Days 31–56).

Days / Diets	Diet A1 (Control)	Diet A2 (2.5%)	Diet A3 (3.75%)	Diet A4 (7.5%)
31	398.47 ± 69.93a	438.13 ± 86.95a	445.89 ± 74.44a	372.81 ± 111.00a
36	505.59 ± 84.89^a	526.44 ± 97.08^a	558.67 ± 115.33^a	480.27 ± 157.24^a
41	621.29 ± 109.72^a	640.06 ± 120.20^a	665.72 ± 157.44^a	611.67 ± 212.99^a
46	724.35 ± 122.76^a	754.31 ± 141.59^a	765.44 ± 184.81^a	716.13 ± 247.99^a
51	854.00 ± 143.48^a	841.63 ± 170.15^a	900.22 ± 214.69^a	834.33 ± 300.25^a
56	974.88 ± 163.53a	988.44 ± 192.43a	1021.44 ± 245.88a	968.73 ± 349.18a

Means within the same row with different letters differ significantly (p < 0.05).

3.2. Flock Survival and Mortality Rates

Flock size dynamics and mortality across the 56-day experimental period are summarized in Table 5. Total overall study mortality was 9.72% (7 out of 72 chicks). Control group A1 recorded 5.55% mortality (1 chick), whereas group A2 lost 2 chicks (11.11%). Crucially, group A3 (7.5% BSFLM inclusion) achieved 100% survival (0% mortality). Conversely, total substitution group A4 suffered the highest mortality at 22.22% (4 dead chicks; p < 0.05). The majority of mortalities occurred during the initial 20 days of the starter phase.

Table 5. Chick count evolution and cumulative mortality rate across dietary treatments.

Diets / Age	Day 1	Day 10	Day 20	Day 30	Day 40	Day 50	Day 56	Mortality (%)
Diet A1 (Control)	18	18	18	17	17	17	17	5.55%^ab
Diet A2 (5%)	18	18	18	16	16	16	16	11.11%^ab
Diet A3 (7.5%)	18	18	18	18	18	18	18	0.00%^b
Diet A4 (15%)	18	17	15	15	14	14	14	22.22%^a
Total	72	71	69	66	65	65	65	9.72%

Values with different letters in the Mortality column differ significantly (χ² test, p < 0.05).

3.3. Serum Biochemistry, Hepatic, and Renal Profiles

Dietary inclusion of BSFLM did not induce significant alterations (p > 0.05) in serum lipid markers, liver enzyme activities, or renal metabolite concentrations (Table 6). Serum triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol (TC), LDL-C, and HDL-C remained statistically equivalent across all treatments. Transaminase activities (ALT and AST) remained stable, confirming the absence of dietary hepatotoxicity. Serum creatinine showed a subtle numeric upward trend in group A4 (2.04 ± 0.17 mg/dL) compared to control A1 (1.68 ± 0.14 mg/dL), but remained within physiological reference limits. Total serum protein exhibited a progressive, dose-dependent numeric elevation from 0.20 ± 0.01 g/dL (A1) to 0.30 ± 0.02 g/dL (A4) (p > 0.05).

Table 6. Serum biochemical, lipid, hepatic, and renal function parameters of broilers at day 56.

Parameters	Diet A1 (Control)	Diet A2 (5%)	Diet A3 (7.5%)	Diet A4 (15%)
Triglycerides (mg/dL)	49.23 ± 3.71^a	54.51 ± 6.80^a	46.17 ± 3.16^a	58.00 ± 11.25^a
Total Cholesterol (mg/dL)	107.44 ± 4.95^a	116.38 ± 27.58^a	105.89 ± 3.17^a	117.93 ± 31.36^a
LDL-Cholesterol (mg/dL)	59.91 ± 6.11^a	60.78 ± 10.33^a	52.51 ± 6.19^a	66.57 ± 28.61^a
HDL-Cholesterol (mg/dL)	37.68 ± 0.94^a	29.36 ± 3.11^a	44.14 ± 4.39^a	39.77 ± 5.14^a
Creatinine (mg/dL)	1.68 ± 0.14^a	1.83 ± 0.12^a	1.75 ± 0.04^a	2.04 ± 0.17^a
ALT / SGPT (U/L)	44.31 ± 6.23^a	51.31 ± 11.35^a	47.81 ± 9.88^a	43.03 ± 4.08^a
AST / SGOT (U/L)	114.60 ± 15.98^a	116.31 ± 10.50^a	112.02 ± 6.53^a	113.63 ± 17.40^a
Uric Acid (mg/dL)	3.70 ± 0.37^a	4.42 ± 0.97^a	3.86 ± 0.27^a	5.07 ± 0.54^a
Serum Protein (g/dL)	0.20 ± 0.01a	0.25 ± 0.01a	0.28 ± 0.01a	0.30 ± 0.02a

Means within the same row with identical letters do not differ significantly (ANOVA, p > 0.05).

3.4. Hematological Parameters

Hematological indices evaluated at day 56 are presented in Table 7. White blood cells (WBC), red blood cells (RBC), hemoglobin (HGB), hematocrit (HCT), and thrombocrit (PCT) showed no significant differences among groups (p > 0.05). Differential leukocyte counts (lymphocytes, monocytes, granulocytes) were similarly stable, although granulocyte proportion peaked numerically in group A3 (69.3 ± 14.76%).

In contrast, platelet counts (PLT) exhibited a statistically significant elevation (p < 0.05) in BSFLM-fed groups A2 (552.33 ± 302.40 × 10³/mm³) and A4 (531.00 ± 197.50 × 10³/mm³) compared to control A1 (359.60 ± 14.57 × 10³/mm³). Group A3 displayed an intermediate platelet concentration (406.00 ± 77.12 × 10³/mm³).

Table 7. Complete hematological profile and differential leukocyte count of broilers at day 56.

Parameters	Diet A1 (Control)	Diet A2 (5%)	Diet A3 (7.5%)	Diet A4 (15%)
WBC (10³/mm³)	8.83 ± 0.46^a	11.13 ± 4.02^a	9.47 ± 3.33^a	9.70 ± 0.46^a
RBC (10/mm³)	9.28 ± 0.53^a	8.11 ± 1.01^a	8.81 ± 1.14^a	9.00 ± 1.12^a
Hemoglobin (g/dL)	16.36 ± 1.12^a	14.10 ± 1.61^a	15.70 ± 2.95^a	15.73 ± 1.17^a
Hematocrit (%)	45.06 ± 5.11^a	38.60 ± 5.01^a	42.90 ± 3.06^a	46.60 ± 6.77^a
Platelets (10³/mm³)	359.60 ± 14.57^a	552.33 ± 302.40^b	406.00 ± 77.12^a	531.00 ± 197.50^b
Thrombocrit (%)	0.29 ± 0.02^a	0.27 ± 0.04^a	0.34 ± 0.13^a	0.29 ± 0.02^a
Lymphocytes (%)	33.20 ± 2.49^a	33.10 ± 3.45^a	24.10 ± 16.80^a	36.50 ± 8.71^a
Monocytes (%)	4.40 ± 2.76^a	6.30 ± 0.60^a	8.80 ± 3.15^a	6.90 ± 1.30^a
Granulocytes (%)	48.00 ± 5.85^a	54.70 ± 4.57^a	69.30 ± 14.76^a	54.20 ± 3.66^a

Means within the same row with different letters differ significantly (ANOVA, p < 0.05).

4. Discussion

4.1. Growth Performance and Ingestion Dynamics

This study demonstrates that moderate substitution of dietary soybean fat with locally extracted, crude BSFL fat improve broiler production under tropical conditions. Indeed, dietary inclusion of BSFLM at 7.5% in the starter phase and 3.75% in the grower phase (Diet A3) supported maximum final body weight (1021.44 g), outperforming the standard soybean meal diet. This growth enhancement is consistent with previous studies carried out in poultry nutrition

[35-37]

. BSF larvae are exceptionally rich in highly digestible amino acids, essential fatty acids (notably lauric acid), and bioactive antimicrobial peptides that stimulate digestive enzyme secretion and improve nutrient absorption

[9, 19]

Conversely, high inclusion levels impose severe physiological stress, growth retardation, and high mortality in broilers (22.22%). These findings are inconsistent with prior reports from temperate regions that observed positive effects on growth performance or no mortality when completely substituting soybean oil with BSFL fat in male Ross 308 broilers

[26]

. Similarly, several authors observed growth suppression and reduced feed intake in poultry fed high inclusion rates of insect meal

[28, 38]

. This depression is likely driven by several physiological factors. Unrefined BSFL fat may (1) contain high concentrations of saturated fatty acids (SFAs), particularly lauric acid and myristic acid, but lower levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) such as linoleic acid compared to soybean oil

[26, 39]

; (2) alter amino acid balance, particularly deficiencies in sulfur-containing amino acids (methionine/cysteine) or lysine relative to energy content; and (3) reduce palatability caused by high lipid concentrations or specific volatile compounds in whole insect meal

[24]

4.2. Growth Performance and Threshold Effects

In the current trial, treatment A3 (50%: 7.5% starter / 3.75% grower BSFL fat) achieved optimal final body weights and maintained 100% survival, corroborating previous research asserting that moderate insect meal inclusion provides digestible medium-chain fatty acids that support intestinal integrity and energy efficiency

[40, 41]

. Moderate level of BSFLM appears to enhance gut barrier integrity and mucosal immunity, likely mediated by lauric acid and chitin derivatives (chitosan) acting as prebiotic substrates for beneficial gut microflora

[42-44]

. Swain et al. 2017

[45]

observed comparable survival and growth benefits in quails supplemented with bioactive organic additives.

4.3. Blood Serum Biochemistry and Metabolic Integrity

Serum lipid profiles (triglycerides, total cholesterol, HDL-C, LDL-C) were not significantly disrupted by dietary BSFLM inclusion, demonstrating metabolic stability. Although numeric increases in total cholesterol and LDL-C occurred in groups A2 and A4, they represent normal physiological ranges for broilers. Several reports confirmed the metabolic safety of BSFLM on lipid profiles and transaminase activities in quail

[46-49]

. Furthermore, serum ALT, AST, creatinine, and uric acid concentrations remained largely within functional physiological ranges across all treatment groups, indicating that the crude BSFL fat did not induce frank hepatic necrosis or acute renal failure. Nevertheless, subtle elevations in liver enzyme activities in group A4 suggest an increased metabolic workload required to process high dietary saturated fatty acids levels and circulating lipopolysaccharides or residual antinutritional factors

[50-52]

4.4. Hematological Dynamics and Reactive Thrombocytosis

Primary hematological indices (WBC, RBC, HGB, HCT) remained within normal physiological ranges. The absence of anemia or leukopenia confirms that BSFLM diets supported adequate erythropoiesis and immune function

[53-55]

. However, our results show the statistically significant elevation in platelet count (PLT) in groups A2 and A4 (thrombocytosis). In contrast, Schiavone et al. 2017

[26]

reported that all hematological traits remained strictly within physiological limits in temperate trial conditions. Unrefined insect fat extracted via mechanical pressing without fine micro-filtration often contains residual micro-chitin particles and microbial debris from the larval gut or rearing substrate

[56, 50]

. In avian physiology, thrombocytes serve dual functions: acting as key primary hemostatic elements and active immune responders capable of phagocytosis and pro-inflammatory cytokine production

[57-59]

The observed thrombocytosis may reflect an adaptive immune response triggered by circulating chitin fragments, which act as pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) to stimulate thrombopoiesis without inducing systemic inflammation

[60, 61]

5. Conclusion

This study demonstrates that black soldier fly larvae meal (Hermetia illucens) is a high-value, safe alternative protein source capable of substituting conventional soybean meal in broiler chicken diets in Sub-Saharan Africa. Crude BSFL fat can safely replace up to 50% of dietary soybean fat (7.5% starter /3.75% grower) without compromising growth performance, serum clinical chemistry, survival, and maintains normal hepatic, renal, and hematological health. Conversely, complete replacement of soybean meal with BSFLM triggers severe growth depression, increases mortality rate, and reactive thrombocytosis, indicating inflammatory and immune stress. Further histological and cytokine profiling is needed to elucidate the biological pathways underlying this thrombocyte response.

Abbreviations

BSFLM	Black Soldier Fly Larvae
ALT	Alanine Aminotransferase
AST	Aspartate Aminotransferase
HDL	High-Density Lipoprotein
LDL	Low-Density Lipoprotein
WBC	White blood cells
RBC	Red Blood Cells
HGB	Hemoglobin
HCT	Hematocrit
PCT	Thrombocrit

Acknowledgments

The authors extend their sincere gratitude to the Department of Animal Biology and Physiology, University of Yaoundé 1, and the Chantal Biya International Reference Centre (CIRCB), Yaoundé, Cameroon, for technical assistance and analytical support.

Author Contributions

Louhd Gbetnkom Mbansie: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Paul Serge Mbenoun Massé: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Bertrant James Taya Saah: Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology

Samuel Didier Makon: Formal Analysis, Software, Writing – original draft

Ruth Mony: Formal Analysis, Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing Data

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

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Mbansie, L. G., Massé, P. S. M., Saah, B. J. T., Makon, S. D., Mony, R. (2026). Black Soldier Fly Larvae Meal (Hermetia illucens) in Tropical Broiler Diets: Inclusion Thresholds for Growth Performance, Physiological, and Survival Dynamics. Advances in Applied Sciences, 11(4), 145-155. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.aas.20261104.11

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Mbansie, L. G.; Massé, P. S. M.; Saah, B. J. T.; Makon, S. D.; Mony, R. Black Soldier Fly Larvae Meal (Hermetia illucens) in Tropical Broiler Diets: Inclusion Thresholds for Growth Performance, Physiological, and Survival Dynamics. Adv. Appl. Sci. 2026, 11(4), 145-155. doi: 10.11648/j.aas.20261104.11

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Mbansie LG, Massé PSM, Saah BJT, Makon SD, Mony R. Black Soldier Fly Larvae Meal (Hermetia illucens) in Tropical Broiler Diets: Inclusion Thresholds for Growth Performance, Physiological, and Survival Dynamics. Adv Appl Sci. 2026;11(4):145-155. doi: 10.11648/j.aas.20261104.11

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@article{10.11648/j.aas.20261104.11,
  author = {Louhd Gbetnkom Mbansie and Paul Serge Mbenoun Massé and Bertrant James Taya Saah and Samuel Didier Makon and Ruth Mony},
  title = {Black Soldier Fly Larvae Meal (Hermetia illucens) in Tropical Broiler Diets: Inclusion Thresholds for Growth Performance, Physiological, and Survival Dynamics},
  journal = {Advances in Applied Sciences},
  volume = {11},
  number = {4},
  pages = {145-155},
  doi = {10.11648/j.aas.20261104.11},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.aas.20261104.11},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.aas.20261104.11},
  abstract = {Poultry farming plays a pivotal role in ensuring food security and rural livelihoods across Sub-Saharan Africa. However, extreme reliance on expensive imported protein feeds, particularly soybean meal and fish meal, severely undermines sector sustainability. This study evaluated the effects of the replacement of the soybean meal with local BSFL meal (BSFLM) on growth performance, survival, liver/kidney biomarkers, and hematological responses in broiler chickens (Ross 308) in Cameroon. A total of 72 one-day-old unsexed chicks were randomly allocated to four dietary treatments across three replicates (6 chicks/replicate) for 56 days (starter phase: days 1–28; grower phase: days 29–56): Control A1 (0% BSFLM), A2 (5%/2.5%, starter/grower), A3 (7.5%/3.75%), A4 (complete replacement: 15%/7.5%). On day 56, 24 chicks were sampled for full blood count, liver enzyme, kidney function, and lipid profile analyses using standardized enzymatic spectrophotometry. Broilers fed diet A3 achieved the highest final body weight (1021.44 ± 245.88 g) and 0% mortality. Conversely, total substitution (A4) resulted in significantly reduced growth, high mortality (22.22%), and impaired feed efficiency, indicating metabolic limits or nutrient imbalances at high inclusion rates. Hepatic (ALT, AST) and renal (creatinine, uric acid) parameters, along with serum lipid profiles (total cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL, LDL), remained within normal physiological reference ranges across all groups, confirming the physiological safety of BSFLM. A significant reactive thrombocytosis was detected in groups A2 and A4 (p < 0.05), warranting further investigation into immune-mediated pathways. Locally processed BSFL meal can safely replace up to 50% of dietary soybean meal in tropical broiler formulations without compromising growth, physiological health, and chicken survival, highlighting the imperative for strict processing standards and threshold management in poultry nutrition.},
 year = {2026}
}

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TY  - JOUR
T1  - Black Soldier Fly Larvae Meal (Hermetia illucens) in Tropical Broiler Diets: Inclusion Thresholds for Growth Performance, Physiological, and Survival Dynamics
AU  - Louhd Gbetnkom Mbansie
AU  - Paul Serge Mbenoun Massé
AU  - Bertrant James Taya Saah
AU  - Samuel Didier Makon
AU  - Ruth Mony
Y1  - 2026/10/21
PY  - 2026
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.aas.20261104.11
DO  - 10.11648/j.aas.20261104.11
T2  - Advances in Applied Sciences
JF  - Advances in Applied Sciences
JO  - Advances in Applied Sciences
SP  - 145
EP  - 155
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2575-1514
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.aas.20261104.11
AB  - Poultry farming plays a pivotal role in ensuring food security and rural livelihoods across Sub-Saharan Africa. However, extreme reliance on expensive imported protein feeds, particularly soybean meal and fish meal, severely undermines sector sustainability. This study evaluated the effects of the replacement of the soybean meal with local BSFL meal (BSFLM) on growth performance, survival, liver/kidney biomarkers, and hematological responses in broiler chickens (Ross 308) in Cameroon. A total of 72 one-day-old unsexed chicks were randomly allocated to four dietary treatments across three replicates (6 chicks/replicate) for 56 days (starter phase: days 1–28; grower phase: days 29–56): Control A1 (0% BSFLM), A2 (5%/2.5%, starter/grower), A3 (7.5%/3.75%), A4 (complete replacement: 15%/7.5%). On day 56, 24 chicks were sampled for full blood count, liver enzyme, kidney function, and lipid profile analyses using standardized enzymatic spectrophotometry. Broilers fed diet A3 achieved the highest final body weight (1021.44 ± 245.88 g) and 0% mortality. Conversely, total substitution (A4) resulted in significantly reduced growth, high mortality (22.22%), and impaired feed efficiency, indicating metabolic limits or nutrient imbalances at high inclusion rates. Hepatic (ALT, AST) and renal (creatinine, uric acid) parameters, along with serum lipid profiles (total cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL, LDL), remained within normal physiological reference ranges across all groups, confirming the physiological safety of BSFLM. A significant reactive thrombocytosis was detected in groups A2 and A4 (p < 0.05), warranting further investigation into immune-mediated pathways. Locally processed BSFL meal can safely replace up to 50% of dietary soybean meal in tropical broiler formulations without compromising growth, physiological health, and chicken survival, highlighting the imperative for strict processing standards and threshold management in poultry nutrition.
VL  - 11
IS  - 4
ER  -

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Louhd Gbetnkom Mbansie

Department of Animal Biology and Physiology, Faculty of Science, University of Yaoundé 1, Yaoundé, Cameroon
Paul Serge Mbenoun Massé

Department of Animal Biology and Physiology, Faculty of Science, University of Yaoundé 1, Yaoundé, Cameroon

Contact Email

http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1882-0002
Bertrant James Taya Saah

Department of Animal Biology and Physiology, Faculty of Science, University of Yaoundé 1, Yaoundé, Cameroon
Samuel Didier Makon

Department of Animal Biology and Physiology, Faculty of Science, University of Yaoundé 1, Yaoundé, Cameroon

http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0657-9442
Ruth Mony

Department of Animal Biology and Physiology, Faculty of Science, University of Yaoundé 1, Yaoundé, Cameroon

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Mbansie, L. G., Massé, P. S. M., Saah, B. J. T., Makon, S. D., Mony, R. (2026). Black Soldier Fly Larvae Meal (Hermetia illucens) in Tropical Broiler Diets: Inclusion Thresholds for Growth Performance, Physiological, and Survival Dynamics. Advances in Applied Sciences, 11(4), 145-155. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.aas.20261104.11

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Mbansie, L. G.; Massé, P. S. M.; Saah, B. J. T.; Makon, S. D.; Mony, R. Black Soldier Fly Larvae Meal (Hermetia illucens) in Tropical Broiler Diets: Inclusion Thresholds for Growth Performance, Physiological, and Survival Dynamics. Adv. Appl. Sci. 2026, 11(4), 145-155. doi: 10.11648/j.aas.20261104.11

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Mbansie LG, Massé PSM, Saah BJT, Makon SD, Mony R. Black Soldier Fly Larvae Meal (Hermetia illucens) in Tropical Broiler Diets: Inclusion Thresholds for Growth Performance, Physiological, and Survival Dynamics. Adv Appl Sci. 2026;11(4):145-155. doi: 10.11648/j.aas.20261104.11

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@article{10.11648/j.aas.20261104.11,
  author = {Louhd Gbetnkom Mbansie and Paul Serge Mbenoun Massé and Bertrant James Taya Saah and Samuel Didier Makon and Ruth Mony},
  title = {Black Soldier Fly Larvae Meal (Hermetia illucens) in Tropical Broiler Diets: Inclusion Thresholds for Growth Performance, Physiological, and Survival Dynamics},
  journal = {Advances in Applied Sciences},
  volume = {11},
  number = {4},
  pages = {145-155},
  doi = {10.11648/j.aas.20261104.11},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.aas.20261104.11},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.aas.20261104.11},
  abstract = {Poultry farming plays a pivotal role in ensuring food security and rural livelihoods across Sub-Saharan Africa. However, extreme reliance on expensive imported protein feeds, particularly soybean meal and fish meal, severely undermines sector sustainability. This study evaluated the effects of the replacement of the soybean meal with local BSFL meal (BSFLM) on growth performance, survival, liver/kidney biomarkers, and hematological responses in broiler chickens (Ross 308) in Cameroon. A total of 72 one-day-old unsexed chicks were randomly allocated to four dietary treatments across three replicates (6 chicks/replicate) for 56 days (starter phase: days 1–28; grower phase: days 29–56): Control A1 (0% BSFLM), A2 (5%/2.5%, starter/grower), A3 (7.5%/3.75%), A4 (complete replacement: 15%/7.5%). On day 56, 24 chicks were sampled for full blood count, liver enzyme, kidney function, and lipid profile analyses using standardized enzymatic spectrophotometry. Broilers fed diet A3 achieved the highest final body weight (1021.44 ± 245.88 g) and 0% mortality. Conversely, total substitution (A4) resulted in significantly reduced growth, high mortality (22.22%), and impaired feed efficiency, indicating metabolic limits or nutrient imbalances at high inclusion rates. Hepatic (ALT, AST) and renal (creatinine, uric acid) parameters, along with serum lipid profiles (total cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL, LDL), remained within normal physiological reference ranges across all groups, confirming the physiological safety of BSFLM. A significant reactive thrombocytosis was detected in groups A2 and A4 (p < 0.05), warranting further investigation into immune-mediated pathways. Locally processed BSFL meal can safely replace up to 50% of dietary soybean meal in tropical broiler formulations without compromising growth, physiological health, and chicken survival, highlighting the imperative for strict processing standards and threshold management in poultry nutrition.},
 year = {2026}
}

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TY  - JOUR
T1  - Black Soldier Fly Larvae Meal (Hermetia illucens) in Tropical Broiler Diets: Inclusion Thresholds for Growth Performance, Physiological, and Survival Dynamics
AU  - Louhd Gbetnkom Mbansie
AU  - Paul Serge Mbenoun Massé
AU  - Bertrant James Taya Saah
AU  - Samuel Didier Makon
AU  - Ruth Mony
Y1  - 2026/10/21
PY  - 2026
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.aas.20261104.11
DO  - 10.11648/j.aas.20261104.11
T2  - Advances in Applied Sciences
JF  - Advances in Applied Sciences
JO  - Advances in Applied Sciences
SP  - 145
EP  - 155
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2575-1514
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.aas.20261104.11
AB  - Poultry farming plays a pivotal role in ensuring food security and rural livelihoods across Sub-Saharan Africa. However, extreme reliance on expensive imported protein feeds, particularly soybean meal and fish meal, severely undermines sector sustainability. This study evaluated the effects of the replacement of the soybean meal with local BSFL meal (BSFLM) on growth performance, survival, liver/kidney biomarkers, and hematological responses in broiler chickens (Ross 308) in Cameroon. A total of 72 one-day-old unsexed chicks were randomly allocated to four dietary treatments across three replicates (6 chicks/replicate) for 56 days (starter phase: days 1–28; grower phase: days 29–56): Control A1 (0% BSFLM), A2 (5%/2.5%, starter/grower), A3 (7.5%/3.75%), A4 (complete replacement: 15%/7.5%). On day 56, 24 chicks were sampled for full blood count, liver enzyme, kidney function, and lipid profile analyses using standardized enzymatic spectrophotometry. Broilers fed diet A3 achieved the highest final body weight (1021.44 ± 245.88 g) and 0% mortality. Conversely, total substitution (A4) resulted in significantly reduced growth, high mortality (22.22%), and impaired feed efficiency, indicating metabolic limits or nutrient imbalances at high inclusion rates. Hepatic (ALT, AST) and renal (creatinine, uric acid) parameters, along with serum lipid profiles (total cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL, LDL), remained within normal physiological reference ranges across all groups, confirming the physiological safety of BSFLM. A significant reactive thrombocytosis was detected in groups A2 and A4 (p < 0.05), warranting further investigation into immune-mediated pathways. Locally processed BSFL meal can safely replace up to 50% of dietary soybean meal in tropical broiler formulations without compromising growth, physiological health, and chicken survival, highlighting the imperative for strict processing standards and threshold management in poultry nutrition.
VL  - 11
IS  - 4
ER  -

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