Introduction: In developing countries including Tanzania, complementary foods fed to children are often carbohydrate-based and lack sufficient protein, energy, vitamins and micronutrients. Evidence suggests that the iron contained in foods such as cereals is not fully absorbed and will collect in the colon with the possibility of free radical generation and intestinal inflammation. Plant-based complementary foods have been reported to contain high levels of phytate and phenolic compounds, which impact on iron bioavailability. Phenolic compounds have an inhibitory effect on non-heme iron, making it unavailable for absorption in the intestinal tract. Traditional processing technologies (soaking and germination) are widely used in the Iringa District for making local ‘brews’. Objective: The objective of the study was to determine the influence of soaking and germination on the iron, phytate and phenolic contents of maize used for complementary feeding in rural Tanzania. Materials and Methods: Maize grains collected from five Wards in the Iringa District were soaked in distilled water, drained and germinated at 0, 36, 48 and 72 hours then processed into flour. Iron, phytate and phenolic contents were analyzed. Results: Iron content fluctuated with germination time, however a significant (P < 0.05) increase was observed at the 72-hour. Significant (p < 0.05) reductions in the mean phytate contents of the samples (ranging from 8.3 to 34.1% reductions) were observed at the 72-hour germination time. Phenolic contents increased with germination time; there was a significant (P < 0.05) increase at the 72-hour germination time for the samples from all locations. Increases in phenolic contents in the soaked germinated maize ranged from 76.7 to 86.3%. Conclusion: The processing technologies of soaking and germination commonly used in the Iringa District for making local ‘brews’ could be utilized to enhance the nutritional properties of complementary foods used by infants and young children. An awareness and education program to inform community members about transferring this technology and its usefulness to complementary feeding is recommended.
| Published in | International Journal of Nutrition and Food Sciences (Volume 6, Issue 2) |
| DOI | 10.11648/j.ijnfs.20170602.18 |
| Page(s) | 111-117 |
| Creative Commons |
This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited. |
| Copyright |
Copyright © The Author(s), 2017. Published by Science Publishing Group |
Complementary Foods, Maize, Phytate, Polyphenols, Iron, Traditional Food Processing Methods
| [1] | Muhimbula, H. S and Zacharia, A. I. Persistent child malnutrition in Tanzania: Risks associated with traditional complementary foods. Asian J Food Sci. (2010) 4: 679–692. |
| [2] | INFACT Canada. Complementary feeding: A solid start. Spring/Summer 2005 Newsletters. (2005). Available at: http://www.infactcanada.ca/newsletter; accessed 01/09/2016. |
| [3] | Yeung DL. 2016. Iron and micronutrients: Complementary food fortification. Available at: http://archive.unu.edu/unupress/food/V192e/ch11.htm; accessed 01/09/2016. |
| [4] | Mosha TCE, Laswai HS, Tetens I. Nutritional composition and micronutrient status of home-made and commercial weaning foods consumed in Tanzania. Plant Foods Hum Nutr. (2000) 55: 185-205. |
| [5] | Michaelsen KF, Friish H. Complementary feeding: a global perspective. Nutrition (1998) 14: 763-766. |
| [6] | Urga K., Narasimha HV. Traditional sour dough bread (Difo Dabbo) making: I. Effects on phytic acid destruction. Ethiop J Health Dev. (1998) 12: 175-181. |
| [7] | Hurrell RF. Influence of vegetable protein sources on trace element and mineral bioavailability J Nutr. (2003) 133: 2973S-29777S. |
| [8] | Mbithi-Mwikya S., van Camp J., Mamiro PRS, Ooghe W., Kolsteren P., Huyghebaert A. Evaluation of the nutritional characteristics of a finger millet based complementary food. J Agric Food Chem 50: 3030-3036. |
| [9] | Nuss E. T and Tanumihardjo S. A.). Quality protein maize for Africa: Closing the protein inadequacy gap in vulnerable populations. Adv. Nutr. (2011) 2: 217-224. |
| [10] | Mamiro PR, Van Camp J, Roberfroid D, Kolsteren P, Huyghebaert A. Prevalence of malnutrition and anaemia among infants aged 4 - 12 months in Kilosa district-rural Tanzania. Meded Rijksuniv Gent Fak Landbouwkd Toegep Biol Wet. (2001) 66: 69-73. |
| [11] | TBS (Tanzania Bureau of Standards). Tanzania standard for processed cereal based weaning foods – Specification. Dar es Salaam: Tanzania Bureau of Standards (1983). |
| [12] | Tanzania Demographic Health Survey 2010. Available at: www. dhsprogram.com; accessed 01/14/2016. |
| [13] | Geissler C., Singh M. Iron, meat and health. Nutrients (2011) 2: 283-316. |
| [14] | Hurrell R., Egli I. Iron bioavailability and dietary reference values. Am J Clin Nutr. (2010) 91(suppl): 1461S-1467S |
| [15] | Friel J., Qasem W., Hossain Z., Jorgensen. Iron and complementary feeding of breast-fed infants. The FASEB J (2014) 28 (suppl.): 247.3. |
| [16] | Gibson R. S, Bailey K. B, Gibbs M., Ferguson EL. A review of phytate, iron, zinc, and calcium concentrations in plant-based complementary foods used in low-income countries and implications for bioavailability. Food Nutr Bull. (2010) 31: S134–S146. |
| [17] | Hotz, C., Gibson RS. Traditional food-processing and preparation practices to enhance the bioavailability of micronutrients in plant-based diets. J Nutr. (2007) 137: 1097-1100. |
| [18] | Tako E. Hoekenga OA, Kochian LV, Glahn RP. High bioavailability iron maize (Zea mays L) developed through molecular breeding provides more absorbable in vitro (Caco-2 model) and in vivo (Gallus gallus). J Nutr. (2013) 12: 3. |
| [19] | Azeke MA, Egielewa SJ, Eigbogbo MU, Ihjmire IG. Effect of germination on the phytase activity, phytate and total phosphorous content of rice (Oryza sativa), maize (Zea mays), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and Wheat (Triticum aestivum). J Food Sci Technol. (2010) 48: 724-729. |
| [20] | Zamzam RK, Zito CA, Hunt JR. Inhibitory effects of dietary calcium on the initial uptake and subsequent retention of hem and no-heme iron in humans: comparisons using an intestinal lavage method. Am J Clin Nutr. (2005) 85: 589-97. |
| [21] | Tsao R. Chemistry and Biochemistry of Dietary Polyphenols. Nutrients (2010) 2: 1231-1246. |
| [22] | Steinmacher J., Pohlandt F., Bode H., Sander S., Kron M., Franz AR. Randomized trial of early versus late enteral iron supplementation in infants with a birth weight of less than 1301grams: Neurocognitive development at 5.3 years corrected age. Pediatrics (2007) 120. |
| [23] | Gopper SS. Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism, 5th edition. Wadsworth, Cengage Learning (2009). |
| [24] | Mihafu F. O Optimizing Traditional Home Processing Technologies to Increase Nutrient Bioavailability of Complementary Foods in Rural Tanzania. MS Thesis, Tuskegee University Library, Tuskegee, Alabama, USA (2014). |
| [25] | Suma PF, Urooj A. Influence of germination on bioaccessible iron and calcium in pearl millet (Pennisetum typhoideum). J Food Sci Technol (2014) 51: 976–981. |
| [26] | Tee ES, Choo KS, Shahid SM. Determination of iron in foods by the atomic absorption spectrophotometric and colorimetric methods. PERTANIA (1989) 12: 313-322. |
| [27] | Wheeler EL, Ferrel RE. A Method for phytic acid determination in wheat and wheat fractions. J. Cereal Chem (1971) 48: 312-320. |
| [28] | Ragazzi E., Veronese G. Quantitative analysis of phenolic compounds after thin-layer chromatographic separation. J Chromatogr (1973) 77: 369-375. |
| [29] | Affify AMR, El-Beltagi HS, Abd El-Salam SA, Omran AA. Bioavailability of iron, zinc, phytate and phytase activity during soaking and germination of white sorghum varieties. PLoS One (2011) 6: e25512. |
| [30] | Hotz C, Gibson RS. Assessment of home-based processing methods to reduce phytate content and phytate/zinc molar ratios of white maize (Zea mays). J Agric Food Chem (2001) 49: 692–698. |
| [31] | Luo W-H., Jin X-X, Wang Q, He Y-J. Effects of germination on iron, zinc, calcium, manganese, and copper availability from cereals and legumes. CyTA – J Food (2014) 12: 22-26. |
| [32] | Sokrab AM, Ahmed IAM, Babiker EE. Effect of germination on antinutritional factors total and extractable minerals of high and low phytate corn (Zea mays L) genotypes. J Saudi Soc Agric Sci (2012) 11: 123-128. |
| [33] | Egli I, Davidsson L, Juillerat M-A, Barclay D, Hurrell R. The influence of soaking and germination on the phytase activity and phytic acid content of grains and seeds potentially useful for complementary feeding. J Food Sci (2002) 67: 3484–3488. |
| [34] | Awada, S. H et al., (2005). Antinutritional factors content and availability of protein, starch and mineral of maize (Zea mays L) and Lentil (Lens culinaris) as influenced by domestic processing. Food Technol (2005) 3: 523-528. |
| [35] | Pawar VD, Machewad GM. Changes in availability of iron in barely during malting. J Food Sci Technol (2006) 43: 28–29. |
| [36] | Raboy V. The biochemistry and genetics of phytic acid synthesis. In: Morre D, Boss W, Loewus F, editors. Inositol metabolism in plants. New York: Wiley-Liss; (1990) pp. 55–76. |
| [37] | Gibson RS, Yeudall F, Drost N, Mitimuni B, Cullinan T. Dietary interventions to prevent zinc deficiency. Am J Clin Nutr (1998) 68 (2 Suppl): 484S-487S. |
| [38] | Abd El Rahaman SM, El Maki HB, Idris WH, Hassan AB, Babiker EE, Tinay AH. Anti-nutritional factors content and hydrochloric acid extractability of minerals in pearl millet cultivars as affected by germination. Internat J Food Sci Nutr. (2007) 58: 6-17. |
| [39] | Vadivel V., Stuetz W., Scherbaum V. Total free phenolic content and health relevant functionality of Indian wild legume grains; effects of indigenous processing methods. J. Food Comp Anal. (2011) 24: 935-943. |
| [40] | Todorovi M., Simi A., Sredojevi S., Todorovi M., Dukanovi L., Radenovi A. Studies on the relationship between the content of total phenolics in exudates and germination ability of maize seed during accelerated aging. Available at: http://www.seedtest.org/; accessed 01/14/2016 |
| [41] | Yao LH, Jiang YM, Shi J, Tomas-Barberan FA, Datta N., Singanusong R., Chen SS. Flavonoids in food and their health benefits. Plant Foods Hum Nutr. (2004) 59: 113-122. |
| [42] | Ardekani MRS, Hajimahmoodi M., Oveisi MR, Sadeghi N, Jannat B., Ranjbar AM, Gholam N., Moridi T. Comparative antioxidant activity and total flavonoid content of Persian pomegranate. Iranian J. Pharm. Res (2011) 10: 519-524. |
APA Style
Fabian Mihafu, Henry S. Laswai, Peter Gichuhi, Stewart Mwanyika, Adelia C. Bovell-Benjamin. (2017). Influence of Soaking and Germination on the Iron, Phytate and Phenolic Contents of Maize Used for Complementary Feeding in Rural Tanzania. International Journal of Nutrition and Food Sciences, 6(2), 111-117. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijnfs.20170602.18
ACS Style
Fabian Mihafu; Henry S. Laswai; Peter Gichuhi; Stewart Mwanyika; Adelia C. Bovell-Benjamin. Influence of Soaking and Germination on the Iron, Phytate and Phenolic Contents of Maize Used for Complementary Feeding in Rural Tanzania. Int. J. Nutr. Food Sci. 2017, 6(2), 111-117. doi: 10.11648/j.ijnfs.20170602.18
AMA Style
Fabian Mihafu, Henry S. Laswai, Peter Gichuhi, Stewart Mwanyika, Adelia C. Bovell-Benjamin. Influence of Soaking and Germination on the Iron, Phytate and Phenolic Contents of Maize Used for Complementary Feeding in Rural Tanzania. Int J Nutr Food Sci. 2017;6(2):111-117. doi: 10.11648/j.ijnfs.20170602.18
Share This Article
Twitter
Linked In
Facebook
Copy
Download@article{10.11648/j.ijnfs.20170602.18,
author = {Fabian Mihafu and Henry S. Laswai and Peter Gichuhi and Stewart Mwanyika and Adelia C. Bovell-Benjamin},
title = {Influence of Soaking and Germination on the Iron, Phytate and Phenolic Contents of Maize Used for Complementary Feeding in Rural Tanzania},
journal = {International Journal of Nutrition and Food Sciences},
volume = {6},
number = {2},
pages = {111-117},
doi = {10.11648/j.ijnfs.20170602.18},
url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijnfs.20170602.18},
eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ijnfs.20170602.18},
abstract = {Introduction: In developing countries including Tanzania, complementary foods fed to children are often carbohydrate-based and lack sufficient protein, energy, vitamins and micronutrients. Evidence suggests that the iron contained in foods such as cereals is not fully absorbed and will collect in the colon with the possibility of free radical generation and intestinal inflammation. Plant-based complementary foods have been reported to contain high levels of phytate and phenolic compounds, which impact on iron bioavailability. Phenolic compounds have an inhibitory effect on non-heme iron, making it unavailable for absorption in the intestinal tract. Traditional processing technologies (soaking and germination) are widely used in the Iringa District for making local ‘brews’. Objective: The objective of the study was to determine the influence of soaking and germination on the iron, phytate and phenolic contents of maize used for complementary feeding in rural Tanzania. Materials and Methods: Maize grains collected from five Wards in the Iringa District were soaked in distilled water, drained and germinated at 0, 36, 48 and 72 hours then processed into flour. Iron, phytate and phenolic contents were analyzed. Results: Iron content fluctuated with germination time, however a significant (P < 0.05) increase was observed at the 72-hour. Significant (p < 0.05) reductions in the mean phytate contents of the samples (ranging from 8.3 to 34.1% reductions) were observed at the 72-hour germination time. Phenolic contents increased with germination time; there was a significant (P < 0.05) increase at the 72-hour germination time for the samples from all locations. Increases in phenolic contents in the soaked germinated maize ranged from 76.7 to 86.3%. Conclusion: The processing technologies of soaking and germination commonly used in the Iringa District for making local ‘brews’ could be utilized to enhance the nutritional properties of complementary foods used by infants and young children. An awareness and education program to inform community members about transferring this technology and its usefulness to complementary feeding is recommended.},
year = {2017}
}
TY - JOUR T1 - Influence of Soaking and Germination on the Iron, Phytate and Phenolic Contents of Maize Used for Complementary Feeding in Rural Tanzania AU - Fabian Mihafu AU - Henry S. Laswai AU - Peter Gichuhi AU - Stewart Mwanyika AU - Adelia C. Bovell-Benjamin Y1 - 2017/03/06 PY - 2017 N1 - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijnfs.20170602.18 DO - 10.11648/j.ijnfs.20170602.18 T2 - International Journal of Nutrition and Food Sciences JF - International Journal of Nutrition and Food Sciences JO - International Journal of Nutrition and Food Sciences SP - 111 EP - 117 PB - Science Publishing Group SN - 2327-2716 UR - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijnfs.20170602.18 AB - Introduction: In developing countries including Tanzania, complementary foods fed to children are often carbohydrate-based and lack sufficient protein, energy, vitamins and micronutrients. Evidence suggests that the iron contained in foods such as cereals is not fully absorbed and will collect in the colon with the possibility of free radical generation and intestinal inflammation. Plant-based complementary foods have been reported to contain high levels of phytate and phenolic compounds, which impact on iron bioavailability. Phenolic compounds have an inhibitory effect on non-heme iron, making it unavailable for absorption in the intestinal tract. Traditional processing technologies (soaking and germination) are widely used in the Iringa District for making local ‘brews’. Objective: The objective of the study was to determine the influence of soaking and germination on the iron, phytate and phenolic contents of maize used for complementary feeding in rural Tanzania. Materials and Methods: Maize grains collected from five Wards in the Iringa District were soaked in distilled water, drained and germinated at 0, 36, 48 and 72 hours then processed into flour. Iron, phytate and phenolic contents were analyzed. Results: Iron content fluctuated with germination time, however a significant (P < 0.05) increase was observed at the 72-hour. Significant (p < 0.05) reductions in the mean phytate contents of the samples (ranging from 8.3 to 34.1% reductions) were observed at the 72-hour germination time. Phenolic contents increased with germination time; there was a significant (P < 0.05) increase at the 72-hour germination time for the samples from all locations. Increases in phenolic contents in the soaked germinated maize ranged from 76.7 to 86.3%. Conclusion: The processing technologies of soaking and germination commonly used in the Iringa District for making local ‘brews’ could be utilized to enhance the nutritional properties of complementary foods used by infants and young children. An awareness and education program to inform community members about transferring this technology and its usefulness to complementary feeding is recommended. VL - 6 IS - 2 ER -
Information
Email: