Prevalence of Aflatoxins in Wheat and Maize Grain Plant-Pest-Pathways at Three Zimbabwean Ports of Entries

Nhamo Mudada; Kudakwashe Primrose Nyaruwata; Louisa Makumbe; Dumisani Kutwyayo; Brian Kudakwashe Shumba; Nyaradzo Nyatanga; Mutsa Chatyoka; Charity Kunaka; Nyamande Mapope; Wonder Ngezimana

doi:doi:10.11648/j.sd.20251306.12

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Prevalence of Aflatoxins in Wheat and Maize Grain Plant-Pest-Pathways at Three Zimbabwean Ports of Entries

Nhamo Mudada^*

, Kudakwashe Primrose Nyaruwata, Louisa Makumbe, Dumisani Kutwyayo, Brian Kudakwashe Shumba, Nyaradzo Nyatanga, Mutsa Chatyoka, Charity Kunaka, Nyamande Mapope, Wonder Ngezimana

Published in Science Discovery (Volume 13, Issue 6)

Received: 12 September 2025 Accepted: 30 September 2025 Published: 8 December 2025

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Abstract

The presence of aflatoxin producing fungi in food imports necessitates rigorous screening. A total of 42 maize and wheat pest pathways found contaminated with aflatoxins-causing- fungi; (Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus) during 2023-2024 phytosanitary inspections at three Zimbabwe ports of entries were subjected to aflatoxin screening at the Fertilizers, Farm Feeds and Remedies Institute (FFRI) using semi-quantitative Best Food Method (BFD) by means of Thin Layer Chromatograph (TLC) to detect aflatoxins contamination. Standard reference mixes containing aflatoxins concentration of 0.5 μg/kg each for B₁ and B₂, and 0.25 μg/kg each for G₁ and G₂ were checks. Controls with known concentration of aflatoxins B₁, B₂, G₁ and G₂ were visibly seen under Ultra Violet (UV) light read at 365 nm and differences of spots intensity for B₁ and B₂ aflatoxins concentration of 12 μg/kg, 24 μg/kg and 36 μg/kg and G₁ and G₂ aflatoxins concentration 6 μg/kg, 12 μg/kg and 18 μg/kg were noted. However, despite the presence of aflatoxin causing fungi in the 42 samples tested, aflatoxins were not detected by the TLC which has a detection limit of <1ppb. Spearman’s rho correlation matrix showed perfectly (ρ = 1.000, p < 0.01) or near-perfectly correlation (ρ ≥ 0.999, p < 0.001) on the four aflatoxin groups (B₁, B₂, G₁, G₂). Perfect correlations were revealed between aflatoxins B₁ and B₂ and between aflatoxins G₁ and G₂ whilst extremely strong correlations were revealed between aflatoxins B₁ and G₁; B₁ and G₂; B₂ and G₁ and B₂ and G₂. The test was highly significant (p<0.001) suggesting strong indication of no association between the four aflatoxin categories. Chi-Square goodness of test revealed statistically significant deviations from the expected frequencies (χ² (4) = 154.083, p < 0.001) suggesting that observed distributions of the aflatoxin were not caused by random variation. Due to the risks of mycotoxin co-occurrences in cereals, the research recommends expanding the testing beyond aflatoxins to include fumonisins caused by Fusarium species and other mycotoxins associated with Penicillum sp and Macrophomina phaseolin as these pests were also isolated from the cross border cereal grain-pest-pathways entering Zimbabwe. This research was limited by non-testing of the isolated fungi on their potential to cause aflatoxins contamination.

Published in	Science Discovery (Volume 13, Issue 6)
DOI	10.11648/j.sd.20251306.12
Page(s)	113-120
Creative Commons	This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
Copyright	Copyright © The Author(s), 2025. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

Aflatoxins, Food Safety, Human Aided, Pest- Pathways, Phytosanitary Inspections

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Mudada, N., Nyaruwata, K. P., Makumbe, L., Kutwyayo, D., Shumba, B. K., et al. (2025). Prevalence of Aflatoxins in Wheat and Maize Grain Plant-Pest-Pathways at Three Zimbabwean Ports of Entries. Science Discovery, 13(6), 113-120. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.sd.20251306.12

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ACS Style

Mudada, N.; Nyaruwata, K. P.; Makumbe, L.; Kutwyayo, D.; Shumba, B. K., et al. Prevalence of Aflatoxins in Wheat and Maize Grain Plant-Pest-Pathways at Three Zimbabwean Ports of Entries. Sci. Discov. 2025, 13(6), 113-120. doi: 10.11648/j.sd.20251306.12

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AMA Style

Mudada N, Nyaruwata KP, Makumbe L, Kutwyayo D, Shumba BK, et al. Prevalence of Aflatoxins in Wheat and Maize Grain Plant-Pest-Pathways at Three Zimbabwean Ports of Entries. Sci Discov. 2025;13(6):113-120. doi: 10.11648/j.sd.20251306.12

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@article{10.11648/j.sd.20251306.12,
  author = {Nhamo Mudada and Kudakwashe Primrose Nyaruwata and Louisa Makumbe and Dumisani Kutwyayo and Brian Kudakwashe Shumba and Nyaradzo Nyatanga and Mutsa Chatyoka and Charity Kunaka and Nyamande Mapope and Wonder Ngezimana},
  title = {Prevalence of Aflatoxins in Wheat and Maize Grain Plant-Pest-Pathways at Three Zimbabwean Ports of Entries},
  journal = {Science Discovery},
  volume = {13},
  number = {6},
  pages = {113-120},
  doi = {10.11648/j.sd.20251306.12},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.sd.20251306.12},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.sd.20251306.12},
  abstract = {The presence of aflatoxin producing fungi in food imports necessitates rigorous screening. A total of 42 maize and wheat pest pathways found contaminated with aflatoxins-causing- fungi; (Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus) during 2023-2024 phytosanitary inspections at three Zimbabwe ports of entries were subjected to aflatoxin screening at the Fertilizers, Farm Feeds and Remedies Institute (FFRI) using semi-quantitative Best Food Method (BFD) by means of Thin Layer Chromatograph (TLC) to detect aflatoxins contamination. Standard reference mixes containing aflatoxins concentration of 0.5 μg/kg each for B1 and B2, and 0.25 μg/kg each for G1 and G2 were checks. Controls with known concentration of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 were visibly seen under Ultra Violet (UV) light read at 365 nm and differences of spots intensity for B1 and B2 aflatoxins concentration of 12 μg/kg, 24 μg/kg and 36 μg/kg and G1 and G2 aflatoxins concentration 6 μg/kg, 12 μg/kg and 18 μg/kg were noted. However, despite the presence of aflatoxin causing fungi in the 42 samples tested, aflatoxins were not detected by the TLC which has a detection limit of 1, B2, G1, G2). Perfect correlations were revealed between aflatoxins B1 and B2 and between aflatoxins G1 and G2 whilst extremely strong correlations were revealed between aflatoxins B1 and G1; B1 and G2; B2 and G1 and B2 and G2. The test was highly significant (pp Fusarium species and other mycotoxins associated with Penicillum sp and Macrophomina phaseolin as these pests were also isolated from the cross border cereal grain-pest-pathways entering Zimbabwe. This research was limited by non-testing of the isolated fungi on their potential to cause aflatoxins contamination.},
 year = {2025}
}

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TY  - JOUR
T1  - Prevalence of Aflatoxins in Wheat and Maize Grain Plant-Pest-Pathways at Three Zimbabwean Ports of Entries
AU  - Nhamo Mudada
AU  - Kudakwashe Primrose Nyaruwata
AU  - Louisa Makumbe
AU  - Dumisani Kutwyayo
AU  - Brian Kudakwashe Shumba
AU  - Nyaradzo Nyatanga
AU  - Mutsa Chatyoka
AU  - Charity Kunaka
AU  - Nyamande Mapope
AU  - Wonder Ngezimana
Y1  - 2025/12/08
PY  - 2025
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.sd.20251306.12
DO  - 10.11648/j.sd.20251306.12
T2  - Science Discovery
JF  - Science Discovery
JO  - Science Discovery
SP  - 113
EP  - 120
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2331-0650
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.sd.20251306.12
AB  - The presence of aflatoxin producing fungi in food imports necessitates rigorous screening. A total of 42 maize and wheat pest pathways found contaminated with aflatoxins-causing- fungi; (Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus) during 2023-2024 phytosanitary inspections at three Zimbabwe ports of entries were subjected to aflatoxin screening at the Fertilizers, Farm Feeds and Remedies Institute (FFRI) using semi-quantitative Best Food Method (BFD) by means of Thin Layer Chromatograph (TLC) to detect aflatoxins contamination. Standard reference mixes containing aflatoxins concentration of 0.5 μg/kg each for B1 and B2, and 0.25 μg/kg each for G1 and G2 were checks. Controls with known concentration of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 were visibly seen under Ultra Violet (UV) light read at 365 nm and differences of spots intensity for B1 and B2 aflatoxins concentration of 12 μg/kg, 24 μg/kg and 36 μg/kg and G1 and G2 aflatoxins concentration 6 μg/kg, 12 μg/kg and 18 μg/kg were noted. However, despite the presence of aflatoxin causing fungi in the 42 samples tested, aflatoxins were not detected by the TLC which has a detection limit of 1, B2, G1, G2). Perfect correlations were revealed between aflatoxins B1 and B2 and between aflatoxins G1 and G2 whilst extremely strong correlations were revealed between aflatoxins B1 and G1; B1 and G2; B2 and G1 and B2 and G2. The test was highly significant (pp Fusarium species and other mycotoxins associated with Penicillum sp and Macrophomina phaseolin as these pests were also isolated from the cross border cereal grain-pest-pathways entering Zimbabwe. This research was limited by non-testing of the isolated fungi on their potential to cause aflatoxins contamination.
VL  - 13
IS  - 6
ER  -

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Nhamo Mudada

Crop Science Department, Marondera University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Marondera, Zimbabwe;Directorate ofAgricultural Advisory and Rural Development Services, Mutare, Zimbabwe

Contact Email

http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7900-5132
Kudakwashe Primrose Nyaruwata

Directorate of Research Education and Specialist Services, Harare, Zimbabwe
Louisa Makumbe

Directorate of Research Education and Specialist Services, Harare, Zimbabwe
Dumisani Kutwyayo

Directorate of Research Education and Specialist Services, Harare, Zimbabwe
Brian Kudakwashe Shumba

Directorate of Research Education and Specialist Services, Harare, Zimbabwe
Nyaradzo Nyatanga

Directorate of Research Education and Specialist Services, Harare, Zimbabwe
Mutsa Chatyoka

Directorate of Research Education and Specialist Services, Harare, Zimbabwe
Charity Kunaka

Directorate of Research Education and Specialist Services, Harare, Zimbabwe
Nyamande Mapope

Crop Science Department, Marondera University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Marondera, Zimbabwe
Wonder Ngezimana

Crop Science Department, Marondera University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Marondera, Zimbabwe

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Mudada, N., Nyaruwata, K. P., Makumbe, L., Kutwyayo, D., Shumba, B. K., et al. (2025). Prevalence of Aflatoxins in Wheat and Maize Grain Plant-Pest-Pathways at Three Zimbabwean Ports of Entries. Science Discovery, 13(6), 113-120. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.sd.20251306.12

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Mudada, N.; Nyaruwata, K. P.; Makumbe, L.; Kutwyayo, D.; Shumba, B. K., et al. Prevalence of Aflatoxins in Wheat and Maize Grain Plant-Pest-Pathways at Three Zimbabwean Ports of Entries. Sci. Discov. 2025, 13(6), 113-120. doi: 10.11648/j.sd.20251306.12

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AMA Style

Mudada N, Nyaruwata KP, Makumbe L, Kutwyayo D, Shumba BK, et al. Prevalence of Aflatoxins in Wheat and Maize Grain Plant-Pest-Pathways at Three Zimbabwean Ports of Entries. Sci Discov. 2025;13(6):113-120. doi: 10.11648/j.sd.20251306.12

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@article{10.11648/j.sd.20251306.12,
  author = {Nhamo Mudada and Kudakwashe Primrose Nyaruwata and Louisa Makumbe and Dumisani Kutwyayo and Brian Kudakwashe Shumba and Nyaradzo Nyatanga and Mutsa Chatyoka and Charity Kunaka and Nyamande Mapope and Wonder Ngezimana},
  title = {Prevalence of Aflatoxins in Wheat and Maize Grain Plant-Pest-Pathways at Three Zimbabwean Ports of Entries},
  journal = {Science Discovery},
  volume = {13},
  number = {6},
  pages = {113-120},
  doi = {10.11648/j.sd.20251306.12},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.sd.20251306.12},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.sd.20251306.12},
  abstract = {The presence of aflatoxin producing fungi in food imports necessitates rigorous screening. A total of 42 maize and wheat pest pathways found contaminated with aflatoxins-causing- fungi; (Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus) during 2023-2024 phytosanitary inspections at three Zimbabwe ports of entries were subjected to aflatoxin screening at the Fertilizers, Farm Feeds and Remedies Institute (FFRI) using semi-quantitative Best Food Method (BFD) by means of Thin Layer Chromatograph (TLC) to detect aflatoxins contamination. Standard reference mixes containing aflatoxins concentration of 0.5 μg/kg each for B1 and B2, and 0.25 μg/kg each for G1 and G2 were checks. Controls with known concentration of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 were visibly seen under Ultra Violet (UV) light read at 365 nm and differences of spots intensity for B1 and B2 aflatoxins concentration of 12 μg/kg, 24 μg/kg and 36 μg/kg and G1 and G2 aflatoxins concentration 6 μg/kg, 12 μg/kg and 18 μg/kg were noted. However, despite the presence of aflatoxin causing fungi in the 42 samples tested, aflatoxins were not detected by the TLC which has a detection limit of 1, B2, G1, G2). Perfect correlations were revealed between aflatoxins B1 and B2 and between aflatoxins G1 and G2 whilst extremely strong correlations were revealed between aflatoxins B1 and G1; B1 and G2; B2 and G1 and B2 and G2. The test was highly significant (pp Fusarium species and other mycotoxins associated with Penicillum sp and Macrophomina phaseolin as these pests were also isolated from the cross border cereal grain-pest-pathways entering Zimbabwe. This research was limited by non-testing of the isolated fungi on their potential to cause aflatoxins contamination.},
 year = {2025}
}

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TY  - JOUR
T1  - Prevalence of Aflatoxins in Wheat and Maize Grain Plant-Pest-Pathways at Three Zimbabwean Ports of Entries
AU  - Nhamo Mudada
AU  - Kudakwashe Primrose Nyaruwata
AU  - Louisa Makumbe
AU  - Dumisani Kutwyayo
AU  - Brian Kudakwashe Shumba
AU  - Nyaradzo Nyatanga
AU  - Mutsa Chatyoka
AU  - Charity Kunaka
AU  - Nyamande Mapope
AU  - Wonder Ngezimana
Y1  - 2025/12/08
PY  - 2025
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.sd.20251306.12
DO  - 10.11648/j.sd.20251306.12
T2  - Science Discovery
JF  - Science Discovery
JO  - Science Discovery
SP  - 113
EP  - 120
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2331-0650
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.sd.20251306.12
AB  - The presence of aflatoxin producing fungi in food imports necessitates rigorous screening. A total of 42 maize and wheat pest pathways found contaminated with aflatoxins-causing- fungi; (Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus) during 2023-2024 phytosanitary inspections at three Zimbabwe ports of entries were subjected to aflatoxin screening at the Fertilizers, Farm Feeds and Remedies Institute (FFRI) using semi-quantitative Best Food Method (BFD) by means of Thin Layer Chromatograph (TLC) to detect aflatoxins contamination. Standard reference mixes containing aflatoxins concentration of 0.5 μg/kg each for B1 and B2, and 0.25 μg/kg each for G1 and G2 were checks. Controls with known concentration of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 were visibly seen under Ultra Violet (UV) light read at 365 nm and differences of spots intensity for B1 and B2 aflatoxins concentration of 12 μg/kg, 24 μg/kg and 36 μg/kg and G1 and G2 aflatoxins concentration 6 μg/kg, 12 μg/kg and 18 μg/kg were noted. However, despite the presence of aflatoxin causing fungi in the 42 samples tested, aflatoxins were not detected by the TLC which has a detection limit of 1, B2, G1, G2). Perfect correlations were revealed between aflatoxins B1 and B2 and between aflatoxins G1 and G2 whilst extremely strong correlations were revealed between aflatoxins B1 and G1; B1 and G2; B2 and G1 and B2 and G2. The test was highly significant (pp Fusarium species and other mycotoxins associated with Penicillum sp and Macrophomina phaseolin as these pests were also isolated from the cross border cereal grain-pest-pathways entering Zimbabwe. This research was limited by non-testing of the isolated fungi on their potential to cause aflatoxins contamination.
VL  - 13
IS  - 6
ER  -

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